Genetically modified organisms, GMOs, are organisms that have their genome altered through various techniques. These techniques are collectively termed genetic engineering. Among the most well applications of these processes are in the manufacture of pharmaceutical products and foods. A transgenic organism is a form of GMO where the modification that has been undertaken is the addition of genetic material obtained from an unrelated organism. Using a genetically engineered organelle is the new frontier.
For a long time, nuclear transformation has been the main technique used in genetic modification. This is, however, now changing as researchers look away from this structure and consider other organelles within the plant cell. The most ideal alternatives that have emerged are mitochondria and chloroplasts. Mitochondria are found both in animal and plant cells while chloroplasts are only present in green plants.
Mitochondria are arguably the second most important organelles in cells only second to the nucleus. Their absence within the cell means that the cell will be unable to produce energy essential for most of its processes. While alternative methods of respiration may exist, these are only effective for a limited period of time beyond which the entire cell is likely to die. Mitochondria have their own genome though it is a lot smaller than what is found in the nucleus.
One of the theories that attempts to explain the presence of the genetic material within this organelle claims that mitochondria were initially independent, unicellular organisms. Proponents of this theory believe that mitochondria were initially parasitic organisms but would eventually evolve over thousands of years to be incorporated into cells to become symbiotic. The ovulation led to loss of part of their genome that made it difficult for them to exist independently. The same theory can be used for chloroplasts.
Chloroplasts are vital to the process of photosynthesis. This is a process that occurs in green plants and involves the use of sunlight energy in food production by a plant cell. These structures have also been established to also play a vital role in processes such as fatty acid synthesis, amino acid synthesis and mounting immune responses by the cells. Chloroplasts posses a DNA that takes on a circular conformation in most cells. Genetic modification of this DNA is passed on to daughter cells through inheritance.
There are several steps involved in genome modification. The first involves the isolation of the desired gene. This can be done by producing it in a laboratory or obtaining it from the genome of another cell. Several genes are available in the genetic library and can easily be obtained from there. The gene is made active by addition of several elements that include, among others, promoter and terminator regions.
The next step is to insert the gene into the organelle (chloroplast or mitochondria). One of the commonest techniques used is to subject the cell to some form of stress such as thermal energy or electric current. This works best for bacterial (prokaryotic) cells. For animal cells, the preferred methods are what is known as microinjection as well as delivery by viral vectors. Techniques used for plants may include electroporation, biolistics and agrobacteria mediated recombination.
Insertion of a genetic material into one cell only achieves a change in this cell. The next step is therefore to facilitate regeneration of the entire organism from this single cell. The process used for this in plants is known as tissue culture. In animals the cells used are usually stem cells so these would subsequently undergo cell division and cell growth.
For a long time, nuclear transformation has been the main technique used in genetic modification. This is, however, now changing as researchers look away from this structure and consider other organelles within the plant cell. The most ideal alternatives that have emerged are mitochondria and chloroplasts. Mitochondria are found both in animal and plant cells while chloroplasts are only present in green plants.
Mitochondria are arguably the second most important organelles in cells only second to the nucleus. Their absence within the cell means that the cell will be unable to produce energy essential for most of its processes. While alternative methods of respiration may exist, these are only effective for a limited period of time beyond which the entire cell is likely to die. Mitochondria have their own genome though it is a lot smaller than what is found in the nucleus.
One of the theories that attempts to explain the presence of the genetic material within this organelle claims that mitochondria were initially independent, unicellular organisms. Proponents of this theory believe that mitochondria were initially parasitic organisms but would eventually evolve over thousands of years to be incorporated into cells to become symbiotic. The ovulation led to loss of part of their genome that made it difficult for them to exist independently. The same theory can be used for chloroplasts.
Chloroplasts are vital to the process of photosynthesis. This is a process that occurs in green plants and involves the use of sunlight energy in food production by a plant cell. These structures have also been established to also play a vital role in processes such as fatty acid synthesis, amino acid synthesis and mounting immune responses by the cells. Chloroplasts posses a DNA that takes on a circular conformation in most cells. Genetic modification of this DNA is passed on to daughter cells through inheritance.
There are several steps involved in genome modification. The first involves the isolation of the desired gene. This can be done by producing it in a laboratory or obtaining it from the genome of another cell. Several genes are available in the genetic library and can easily be obtained from there. The gene is made active by addition of several elements that include, among others, promoter and terminator regions.
The next step is to insert the gene into the organelle (chloroplast or mitochondria). One of the commonest techniques used is to subject the cell to some form of stress such as thermal energy or electric current. This works best for bacterial (prokaryotic) cells. For animal cells, the preferred methods are what is known as microinjection as well as delivery by viral vectors. Techniques used for plants may include electroporation, biolistics and agrobacteria mediated recombination.
Insertion of a genetic material into one cell only achieves a change in this cell. The next step is therefore to facilitate regeneration of the entire organism from this single cell. The process used for this in plants is known as tissue culture. In animals the cells used are usually stem cells so these would subsequently undergo cell division and cell growth.
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